DEVELOPMENT OF THEORIES
Theories are not discovered, they are created. A set of observable facts may exist, but they do not become a theory unless someone has the insight to understand the relevance of the observed information and pulls the facts together to make sense of them.
Certainly, many people observed apples falling from trees before Newton was stimulated to consider the force of gravity. Theories can be developed using inductive or deductive processes.
Inductive Theories
Inductive theories are data based and evolve through a process of inductive reasoning, beginning with empirically verifiable observations. Through multiple investigations and observations, researchers determine those variables that are related to a specific phenomenon and those that are not.
The patterns that emerge from these studies are developed into a systematic conceptual framework, which forms the basis for generalizations.
The patterns that emerge from these studies are developed into a systematic conceptual framework, which forms the basis for generalizations.
This process involves a degree of abstraction and imagination, as ideas are manipulated and concepts reorganized, until some structural pattern is evident in their relationship.
Deductive Theories
The alternative approach to theory building is the intuitive approach, whereby a theory is developed on the basis of great insight and intuitive understanding of an event and the variables most likely to impact on that event.
This type of theory, called a hypothetical deductive theory, is developed with few or no prior observations, and often requires the generation of new concepts to provide adequate explanation. Freud's theory of personality fits this definition. It required that he create concepts such as "id," "ego" and "superego" to explain psychological interactions and motivations.
Because they are not developed from existing facts, hypothetical-deductive theories must be continually tested in the "real world" to develop a database that will support them. Einstein's theory of relativity is an excellent example of this type of theory; it was first advanced in 1905 and is still being tested and refined through research today.
Most theories are formulated using a combination of both inductive and hypothetical deductive processes. Observations initiate the theoretical premise, and then hypotheses derived from the theory are tested.
As researchers go back and forth in the process of building and testing the theory, concepts are redefined and restructured. This process occurs along a circular continuum between fact and theory, whereby a theory can be built on facts, but must also be tested by them.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THEORIES
A theory should provide a thorough and rational explanation of observed facts. It should provide a basis for classifying relevant variables and predicting their relationships.
A theory should also provide a means for its own verification; that is, it should be sufficiently developed and clear enough to permit deductions that form testable hypotheses.
A Good Theory Is Economical. It should be the most efficient explanation of the phenomenon, using only those concepts that are truly relevant and necessary to the explanation offered by the theory.
Complex theories are difficult to interpret and less likely to provide meaningful direction to practice or research. Theories are also most useful when they apply to a broad range of situations, not one specific segment of a discipline.
A Theory Should Be Important. It should reflect that which is judged significant by those who will use it. In this sense, theories become the mirror of a profession's values and identity.
Acceptance of Theory Can Change. Theories must be consistent with observed facts and the already established body of knowledge. Therefore, our acceptance of a particular theory will reflect the present state of knowledge and must adapt to changes in that knowledge as technology and scientific evidence improve.
Therefore, a theory is only a tentative explanation of phenomena. It should be reasonable according to what has been observed, but may not be the only explanation. Many theories that are accepted today will be discarded tomorrow.
Some will be "disproved" by new evidence, and others may be superseded by new theories that integrate the older ones.
For example, Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences challenged long-held assumptions about general intelligence and the ability to measure it with a single score, such as an IQ test.
He proposes eight distinct intelligences and suggests that different cultures will perceive these differently.
Theory Testing
When we speak of testing a theory, we should realize that a theory itself is not testable. The validity of a theory is derived through the empirical testing of hypotheses that are deduced from it and from observation of the phenomenon the theory describes.
The hypotheses predict the relationships of variables included in the theory. The results of research will demonstrate certain facts, which will either support or not support the hypothesis. If the hypothesis is supported, then the theory from which it was deduced is also supported.
When we compare the outcomes of individual research studies with predicted outcomes, we are always aware of the potential for dis-confirmation of the underlying theory. In essence, the more that research does not dis-confirm a theory, the more the theory is supported.
This may sound backwards, but in actuality we can never "prove" or "confirm" a theory. We can only demonstrate that a theoretical premise does not hold true in a specific situation.
When a research hypothesis is tested and it is not rejected, that is, the study turns out the way we expected, we cannot state that the underlying theory is definitely true.
To make such a statement, we would have to verify every possible application of the theory and demonstrate that the outcomes were absolutely consistent. As this is not feasible, we can only interpret individual hypotheses and conclude that a theory has not been disproved.
